Reading response to the attached article. PLEASE READ THE ARTICLE THOROUGHLY !! (college level paper)
What is this article about? Briefly summarize its contents and conclusions. (Be careful not to rely on the abstract for the article (if there is one) when you do this.)
Note and explain two things that were new to you (new information or new ideas, perhaps a particular term that the author did not explain, or the name of a key figure). (Was the topic itself new to you?) Why do you think these things are important to know about?Look up these new terms/ideas, define them, and cite the sources where you found the information (as an internal text citation and also in your bibliography).
On your own, find another article on a similar topic, in an academic journal! Looking through this article’s bibliography might help you find one. Summarize this other article, and explain how it relates to (complements, supplements, and/or possibly contradicts) the article assigned.
Include properly formatted bibliographic citationsâ€â€there will be several of them:
The article itself
The sources you used to answer question 2
The article you found to answer question 3
•Try your best to format your in-text citations or your footnotes, and your bibliography in either
Chicago notes-and-bibliography style https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide- 1.htmlor in
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Total length of assignment should be between 1250-2000 words. 12-point font, double-spaced.
The School Lives of Jewish Children and Youth in the Third Reich
Author(s): Marion Kaplan
Source: Jewish History, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Fall, 1997), pp. 41-52
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101300
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Jewish History * Volume 11, No. 2 * Fall 1997
The School Lives
of Jewish Children and Youth
in the Third Reich
Marion Kaplan
In 1933 the Central Organization of German Jews estimated that there were about
60,000 school-aged Jewish children through age fourteen in Germany.1 Besides
the normal concerns of growing up, hostility from the society around them, and
anxieties in families under severe stress, these children faced a variety of
tribulations in schools. In fact, compared to their elders, whose loss of jobs and
businesses proceeded more erratically, this generation faced a far more drastic
deterioration in the atmosphere at public school and among non-Jewish friends
and a drastic reduction in their aspirations. Gender played an important role in
the expectations of parents and also determined how children interacted with
peers and the ways in which they envisioned their futures, but from 1933 on, few
children experienced a carefree childhood.
Jewish Children in “Aryanized” Schools
The Nazi “Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools” of April 1933
established a quota of 1.5 percent total enrollment for Jews. Where Jews made
up more than 5 percent of the population, schools could allow up to 5 percent
of their pupils2 to be Jewish. Exemptions included the Volksschule, Jewish pupils
whose fathers had served during the First World War, children of mixed
marriages (with no more than two Jewish grandparents), and Jewish children
with foreign citizenship. Similar to the other “April Laws,” the actual number of
exemptions surprised the Nazis. The number of pupils exempted by their
parents’ status turned out to be 75 percent in 1935/36.3 But this was, at best, a
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42 Marion Kaplan
Pyrrhic victory. Even when Jews could go to school, the massive hostility
they met and practical concerns with learning a vocation forced many to leave
school.4
Because children spend so much time in school, unprotected by family, Jewish
children continually met face-to-face with the repercussions of Nazism there.
Well before Jewish children were expelled from German public schools, the
majority no longer had the same rights as non-Jews. Denied school subsidies,
they were forbidden from going to swimming pools or boarding schools on class
trips {LandschulheimeX and often were forced to sit segregated from their other
classmates. Moreover, assignments often upset Jewish children. In German class,
the dramas and prose pieces that one Jewish teenager studied suddenly began to
include themes about the need for Germany to expand. Titles varied, including
“Volk without Space.” In English class, she read news articles from a British
pro-Nazi tabloid.5 Teachers often required essays on Nazi themes, but Jews were
prohibited from addressing these topics. They were given arbitrary topics which
had never been discussed in class. No matter how well an essay was written, a
Jewish child seldom received a top grade.6 Many Jewish children could not take
part in school festivities within the building, and on the rare occasion when they
could, the “Aryan” children would show up in their Nazi youth group outfits,
making it clear who did not belong.7
Most Jewish children could not attend school events that took place outside
school. A mother described her daughter’s unhappiness about missing such
events: “It was not because she was denied going to the show that my little girl
was weeping…but because she had to stay apart, as if she were not good enough
to associate with her comrades any longer.” On Mother’s Day, Jewish children
had to take part in the school festivities, but were not allowed to sing along.
When they protested, their teacher responded haughtily: “I know you have a
mother,…but she is only a Jewish mother.”8
The extent of persecution depended on various factors: whether Jewish children
attended urban or rural schools, whether they lived in areas where the Nazis were
particularly popular, and what the political attitudes ot the teachers were.
Children were more likely to be victimized in small town and village schools.
Thus, well before legislation forced them out, Jewish adolescents over the age
of 14 (after which attendance was no longer compulsory) left school in
droves.
School was not only a daily trial but also the site where some children learned
of their “Jewish” identity according to Nazi law. Such shocks notwithstanding,
school not only created the circumstances under which “mixed” children might
discover their Jewish heritage, but also the place where some affirmed it.
Seventeen-year old Annemarie Scherman reacted to her teacher’s rudeness and
biases by becoming a “conscious Jew”: “I was proud to be ‘different.'”9
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The School Lives of Jewish Children in the Third Reich 43
Although Jewish children received the brunt of discrimination and physical abuse
from their peers, half-Jewish children were not exempt. In Hamburg, a “half
Aryan” boy had to be hospitalized for two months resulting from the constant
physical and emotional persecution he experienced in school. Thereafter his
parents saw no alternative but to enroll him in an Orthodox Jewish school despite
his membership in the Protestant church.10 For a few children, their Jewishness
and the hostile school atmosphere led to estrangement from their families and
their identities and, ultimately, to tragedy. In Hamburg, a writer described her
young nephew’s tormented reaction to the new conditions at school:
[He] used to greet us when he came home from school with “Heil Hitler.” He
continued to do it, even if forbidden, declaring that he did not want to be a Jew
and that he did not believe in being one …. One day he came home from school
complaining of having been struck on the head by his chum who was a Hitler
Youth and called him “dirty Jew!” He had a severe headache, and his father
gave him aspirin which did not relieve him. Trying to help himself to more
aspirin, he picked up the veronal bottle by mistake, and overdosed himself with
the sedative …. As the drug took affect, he became delirious. He kept shouting
“Heil Hitler” which were the last words we heard him say.11
The Effect of School on the Family
The pain of their children – who often faced anti-Semitism from classmates and
teachers more immediately than their parents – disturbed both women and men
profoundly as parents, but women learned of and dealt with their children’s
distress more directly than men. When children came home from school, their
mothers were the first ones to hear the latest stories and had to respond: “The
children came home every day with yet another wound and for a mother to make
up for that was the hardest thing.”12 Principals summoned mothers to pick up
their children when they were expelled from school – and this could happen
more than once – and these mothers then sought new schools for their children.13
Mothers were usually the ones whom teachers phoned when children were to be
excluded from class events or to receive grades beneath their actual achievement
level. In a small city in Baden, the (female) teacher sent Verena Hellwig a letter
regarding her daughter’s grades:
Today we were informed at a teachers* meeting that Jews or Mischlinge could
no longer receive prizes for their achievements. Because your little daughter is
the best pupil in the class, she will be affected by these measures. I’m informing
you in order that you can tell Irene, so that she won’t be surprised and too hurt
during tomorrow’s awards ceremony.
Her daughter was very upset but insisted on going to the prize ceremony anyway
because it was not her fault “if they make such mean laws.”14 Even Nazi teachers
might make a phone call to a child’s mother when the child was to be excluded.
One recipient of such calls wrote: “I believe that the Nazi teacher was ashamed
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44 Marion Kaplan
of herself now and then, when she looked into the sad eyes of my little
daughter….”15 Sympathetic teachers were not entirely uncommon in the early
years. Yet, the threat to job security made those who had shown sympathy early
more careful later on – behavior which was multiplied thousandfold in the
German population.16
Mothers also supervised their children’s homework. One can imagine the
contradictory emotions of a Jewish mother who was reassured to learn that her
son had sung patriotic songs, said “Heil Hitler” to the teacher, and received praise
for his laudatory essay about Hitler: “…[his] gross political miseducation at
school would keep [him] out of trouble.” About a year later the same child, now
enrolled in a Jewish school, wrote a story about Jewish resistance as a Mother’s
Day gift for his mother. Upon reading it, she was frightened: “[his] political
awakening…could lead to trouble for the whole family.”17 Another mother, in a
small south German town, commented on the lies that her children were expected
to echo in their homework assignments.
There were… compositions with delicate subjects, and they were not allowed to
put down a contradictory opinion….all the children knew what they were
expected to write. It was bad enough, that this kind of state’s education taught
them to hate, to despise, to be suspicious, to denounce, but worst of all perhaps
was this … lying. When it becomes a custom it is extremely difficult to get rid
of… especially when the children become aware that their parents, who always
had condemned lies, were compelled under certain circumstances to lie to this
government also.18
Small children shared their distress openly with parents. Little children, of six,
seven or eight, found it agonizing not to be part of the group, not to be able to
“march along.” One little boy, referring to his circumcision, confided to his father
that he wished he were a girl. Then the other children would not know
immediately that he was a Jew. When asked what he would wish for (late 1933),
a seven-year old answered “to be a Nazi.” When his father asked – “and the rest
of us?” He responded that he would wish they could be Nazis too. This is the
same child whose teacher noted that he flinched every time the Nazi flag was
raised.19
Older children kept more of their pain to themselves, hiding their feelings and
some of the more troubling events in their daily school lives from their already
overburdened parents who had “no time and too much Angstl.”20 In a small town
in Ostwestfalen-Lippe the only Jewish girl in the school had enthusiastically
participated in preparatory swimming exercises in the gym all winter long. When
spring came, the class was to go to the public pool to actually swim. With sadness,
her (female) teacher told her she could not join the class.
“You know why you cannot go with us to the park swimming pool?” And I
said, “yes, I know.” I did not cry. For a minute, I believe, I wanted to die. …
Curiously, I was hurt more for my parents than for myself. …
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The School Lives of Jewish Children in the Third Reich 45
Calmly, she told her mother:
Well, I can’t go swimming, I’m Jewish after all. And I saw the pain in my
mother’s eyes, and she said, “Well, come with me, we’ll buy a chocolate pastry
with whipped cream.” … And every Wednesday the others went swimming, and
I went home and got a pastry. That hurt me very much, very, very much.”21
A Breslau teenager had the same reaction. When her “Aryan” best friend told
her that they could no longer associate because her father had a high civil service
position, she chose to spare her parents and found excuses as to why her friend
no longer came to her home.22 Such attempts notwithstanding, mothers, and
probably fathers too (to the extent their wives did not shelter them), surmised
what was happening. The Protestant mother of two Mischling children noted that
many of her daughter’s friends no longer came to their home. “Loneliness
enveloped us more and more each day,” she wrote.23
Often, children had to walk a tightrope between the demands of parents and
school. In one small town, the elementary school teacher insisted that Jewish
children give the Nazi salute. The parents advised the children not to do so, both
because it was against Judaism to exalt a human being and because the
newspapers stated that Jews were not supposed to give the salute. The teacher’s
response boded ill. He threatened the Jewish children with the wrath of their
“Aryan” schoolmates and the Jewish children cooperated and did not admit it at
home.24 Another Jewish child was simply delighted when he was forced to give
the Nazi salute in school (something his parents had forbidden).25
Unlike Jewish teens, Jewish children under 14 could not simply leave school.
Why did they remain in public schools as long as they did, when, in fact, as
early as 1934 the Central Organization of German Jews reported that many Jewish
children were showing signs of psychological disturbance?26 Clearly there were
practical reasons: the Jewish community could not build Jewish schools as
quickly as they were needed, and the public schools had acquired reputations for
educational competence. Moreover, some Jews still lived in towns in which the
population of Jews was too small to support a Jewish school.
There may have been a gender specific dimension as well: while mothers had
grave trepidations, fathers exhorted the children to remain in school. Toni Lessler,
the founder and director of a Montessori School in Berlin which became a Jewish
school when the government forbade “Aryan” children from attending it,
described the attitudes of Jewish families:
If the parents had only guessed what the children had to go through there. . .And
it must probably have been a false pride which caused the fathers in particular
to keep their children in city schools, all the more because they had to “suffer”
absolutely nothing at all.27
Lessler points to fathers’ aspiration to give their children a quality education but
also to their “stand tough” approach.
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46 Marion Kaplan
Memoirs also artest to fathers’ (delusionary) hopes that their children would not
suffer and to their insistence that their children “tough it out” and develop
“thicker skin.” When a sixteen-year old, the only Jewish girl in the class, balked
at participating in a class trip, aware that the class would eat at a hotel which
displayed a “Jews undesired” placard, her mother supported her. The mother
dreaded the anxiety and pain her daughter might experience – “she’ll worry about
what might happen during the entire trip” – but her father insisted that she
participate.28 Another father knew the horrid details of his son’s school
experience, but did not seem to fathom the child’s emotional state. The boy was
forced to sit separately; the teacher never called on him or marked his
assignments; he was forbidden from swimming. His class essay was entitled:
“Adolf Hitler, the Savior of the German Volk from the Jewish World Plague.”
When his father finally agreed to take the child from the school the ten-year old
proclaimed: “Father, just a little more time, and – had you continued to force
me to go to a school – I would have thrown myself under a train.”29
These and Lessler’s observations are examples of gender specific reactions in
which men wished to stand firm. They are also examples of gender specific roles
in which husbands made the ultimate decisions although their wives had more
immediate contact with their children and were more open to their children’s
emotional states. Also in accordance with gender socialization, wives (and
children) may have kept the worst from fathers and boys, trying to be “manly,”
may have remained more silent than girls. They sought to spare fathers yet
another strain because their business or professional lives were bitter enough.
One boy remembered coming home many times to his mother’s admonition,
“Don’t talk to your father,” who was very upset.30 Increasingly, harassment, as
well as expulsion from some public schools, provoked many families to enroll
their children in Jewish schools.
Jewish Schools
In 1932, about fourteen percent of Jewish children attended a Jewish school.
There were 140 Jewish lower schools (Volksschulen) with about 12,000 pupils
and ten Jewish high schools with about 3,000 pupils.31 Harassment, as well as
expulsion from some public schools, provoked many families to enroll their
children in Jewish schools. The Jewish community tried to build more schools
as more children needed them. By 1936 the Central Organization of Jews in
Germany had founded about 160 schools with 1,200 teachers.32 By 1937, about
60 percent of Jewish children went to 167 Jewish schools.33 Still, the other 40′
percent remained in the public elementary schools, subject to torment by teachers
and other children, until November 1938 when the Nazis barred their
attendance.34
The Central Organization of Jews in Germany, the parents, and the Jewish
communities (Gemeinden) had to pay for the schools with ever smaller means
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The School Lives of Jewish Children in the Third Reich 47
and had to maintain a sizeable pool of teachers even though more and more
Jewish teachers emigrated.35 In small towns, school accomodations were meager.
In Pforzheim, near the Black Forest, the Jewish “school” consisted of two
classrooms of children of mixed ages. Located within the public school building,
the Jewish children had to use a separate entrance to reach their classes.36 Large
cities offered more educational variety, with Berlin offering the most. Berlin had
one Jewish Oberschule (upper grades), one Mittelschule (5th-10th grades), eight
Volksschulen (elementary grades), a school for the hearing and speech impaired,
and a school for handicapped children. Also, the reform and orthodox
communities had their own schools.37 Moreover, private Jewish schools – not
subsidized by the Jewish communities or organizations – grew considerably. Toni
Lessler’s “Private Juedische Waldschule Grunewald,” for example, grew from
140 to 425 children as Jews fled from mixed schools. She had to rent a bigger
building (13 classrooms plus gym, lecture halls, labs and music room). In 1938
she added a Home Economics School (Kochschule). With fifty teachers employed
by the school, she also received permission to add higher grades (Oberschule)
so that pupils could study for the Abitur and the Oxford English exam.38 All of
these Jewish schools were under the direct supervision of the Nazi school
bureaucracy, so that, for example, a graduate of the Jewish Gymnasium in Breslau
received a diploma which displayed “under the logo of the school – a Star of
David – the official seal of the Oberpraesidium (board of education) – a
swastika.”39
All Jewish schools taught Judaism, history and culture.40 Sometimes Jewish
children learned about Judaism or celebrated the holidays for the first time at
these schools. As Lotte Kaliski, founder of the (private) Kaliski School in Berlin
noted: “Most of us came from very assimilated families and so did the children,
but we understood that in order to give children a more positive attitude, they
had to know something about their background.”41 Some of the private schools
offered unconventional curricula: they prepared children for both the British
matriculation exams and the American College Board exams, and gave courses
in gardening and Hebrew because Palestine, too, was a likely destination. All
Jewish schools attempted to provide some pleasure, including holiday plays,
concerts, or sports contests. Still, even in Jewish schools children on occasion
had to listen to Hitler’s speeches which, according to one observer, could be
“real torture.”42
On the one hand, Jewish observers noted that the Jewish schools further
segregated Jews: “In this way, alienation and separation from the surrounding
Christian world, the goal of the anti-Semites, resulted more and more.”43 On the
other hand, the Jewish schools provided immediate relief for most children. Toni
Lessler wrote about a nine-year old girl who asked her “…whether we used
special pens for our written work, because with us she could write every word
so easily, it seemed to her as if the words flowed from the pen, and in the other
school they had always remained stuck in the pen because of fear.”44 Recalling
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48 Marion Kaplan
his relief at entering a Jewish school as a fifteen-year old, one man later wrote:
“There were no pictures of the F?hrer and no more Nazi salutes, no unfair
fist-fights and no Nazi battle songs. Liberated, I could breathe.”45 Two young
siblings, having moved to Berlin from a small town, were astounded that Jewish
children played during their school break and talked loudly – not the way Jewish
children in the provinces had been forced to behave. “Suddenly I was in another
world…it was too good to be true.” This sense of safety could lead to a prankish
resistance to Nazi abuse. Arnold Paucker recalled how two friends regularly
imitated Hitler and Goebbels to uproarious laughter from their schoolmates.
Although the teachers objected to such dangerous antics, these were the same
teachers who discreetly celebrated the victory of the Jewish boxer, Max Baer,
over the German, Max Schmeling, in the world championship, by canceling
school for one day.46
Thus, Jewish children who attended Jewish schools lived a dual existence: safety
in school and danger outside. From 1935 on, when she transferred to a Jewish
school, one thirteen-year old recalled her happiness in the school: “I wallowed
in it. I just loved it… Whatever deprivation there was didn’t seem to touch me
all that much … I accepted it as part of life.” In contrast, the streets of Berlin,
where other children pressed “tickets to Jerusalem” into her hand, jeering “Jewish
cow,” frightened her.47 Jewish teachers constantly reminded children to be quiet
and unobtrusive when they were on the streets, to walk in twos, not in groups,
and not to linger in front of the school.48 Sex or age was no shield. In Berlin, a
gang of boys attacked even a six-year-old Jewish girl, taunting her to “say
something in Hebrew” before they let her go.49
Their happiness among other Jews notwithstanding, these same children learned
to expect radical change at any time: new teachers, new classmates, new
curricula, new languages, the disappearance of classmates as families emigrated
without notice, and, occasionally, the arrest of one of their fathers.50 About
two-thirds of Jewish children and youth (under the age of 25) left Germany
between 1933 and September 1939.51 Some fled on their own, others with their
families, and still others “turned into letters,” as they escaped on the
Kindertransporte, many never to see their families again.
The fluctuations in one Jewish school in Berlin give a sense of the enormous
changes Jewish children had to face. At the end of 1932/33,470 children attended
the Jewish middle school on the Grosse Hamburger Strasse. Two weeks later, at
the beginning of the new school year, the school burgeoned to 840. One year
later, 1,025 children attended the same school. And then a rapid decline set in.
As families emigrated, attendance dropped to 380 by spring 1939.52 Moreover,
the authorities, ever respectful of the comfort of “Aryan” neighbors, compelled
Jewish schools to follow strict regulations about outdoor activities, and,
sometimes, without notice, required Jewish administrators to decrease the number
of children in attendance.53
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The School Lives of Jewish Children in the Third Reich 49
Ruth Kl?ger’s experience in Vienna was typical of many children in Germany
as well. Born in 1931, she attended eight different schools between the ages of
six and ten. The drop in numbers as children and teachers emigrated forced
Jewish schools to merge. She recalled that what most interested her when she
arrived at school each morning was how many other pupils had vanished. Then
the remaining pupils would be transferred to another school and would have to
get used to new teachers, as they, too, emigrated.54
By late 1939, 82 percent of children aged 15 and under and 83 percent of youth
aged 16-24 had managed to escape Germany.55 The remaining Jewish children
and teens had fewer and fewer friends with whom to associate especially outside
the big cities. By 1937, in Hessen-Nassau, for example, seventy-eight
communities counted fewer than ten Jewish children and teens and only thirteen
communities counted between twenty and thirty-five children and teens.56
Opportunities for those increasingly nervous and frightened children who stayed
on – the children’s transports, like other exits, were never sufficient – continued
to dwindle. By July 1941 about 25,000 Jewish children and youth under age 25
remained within the borders of pre-1938 Germany. Close to 20,000 under the age
of 18 were murdered.57
The turmoil created by Nazi Germany destroyed the childhood and youth of tens
of thousands of young Jews. Their public school experiences ranged from
hostility to humiliation to ostracism. Going to school could be like running the
gauntlet, physically and psychologically. One can only wonder how previously
sheltered, hopeful, and lively children could cope with increasing ostracism and
the cruel narrowing of options in lives that had not yet really been launched.
More and more children turned to Jewish schools, where some learned about
Judaism for the first time while others delighted in being among their own. The
havens provided by these schools proved important, but temporary, both in space
and time. Beyond the school yard, Jewish children faced the animosity of
“Aryan” adults and the verbal or physical attacks of “Aryan” children. Jewish
schools soon shrank as more children emigrated. The Nazis closed them forever
in June 1942.
NOTES
1. Werner T. Angress, Generation zwischen Furcht und Hoffnung: J?dische Jugend im Dritten
Reich (Hamburg, 1985), 15.
2. Since Germans distinguish between Sch?ler (equivalent to our elementary and highschool
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50 Marion Kaplan_
students) and Student (someone who attends the university), I have used “pupil” and “student,*’
respectively.
3. Joseph Benjamin Levy – Frankfurt/Main, a cantor and active in Bnai Brith; from Before the
Holocaust: Three German-Jewish Lives, 1870-1939, ed. and trans, by Thomas Dunlap
(forthcoming).
4. Clemens Vollnhals, “J?disches Selbsthilfe bis 1938,” in Wolfgang Benz (ed.), Die Juden in
Deutschland, 1933-1945 (Munich, 1988), 339. This chart shows that in selected cities (Stuttgart,
Ulm, Heilbronn, etc.) the cause for students to leave higher schools was primarily mistreatment
by teachers or the school administration. About 22 percent left of their own free will.
5. Margot Littauer, Harvard ms., 21. Littauer was fifteen in 1933.
6. Toni Lessler, “Mein Leben in Deutschland vor und nach dem 30. Januar 1933” (written 1940
for Harvard contest), LBI, 23; Charles Marks, memoirs, LBI, 4.
7. Toni Lessler, LBI, 22-4. Already by the end of 1933, the Nazi youth groups contained 47
percent of boys between 10 and 14 in the Deutsches Jungvolk’, 38 percent of boys between
14 and 18 in the Hitler Youth proper; 15 percent of girls between 10 and 14 in the
Jungm?delbund; and eight percent of girls between 15 and 21 in the Bund Deutscher M?del.
The Hitler Youth Law of December 1936 called for the incorporation of all German youth
and a law of 1939 made “youth service” compulsory. Detlev Peukert, “Youth in the Third
Reich,” in Richard Bessel (ed.), Life in the Third Reich (Oxford/New York, 1987), 27-8.
8. Marta Appel, trans, by Stella and Sidney Rosenfeld in Monika Richarz (ed.), Jewish Life in
Geremany: Memoirs from Three Centuries (Bloonington, 1991), 353-4.
9. Attendance statistics in Vollnhals, “J?disches Selbsthilfe bis 1938,” 332-8. Annemarie
Scherman, Yad Vashem, Wiener Library Collection, 02/435,1.
10. Ursula B?ttner, Die Not der Juden teilen: Christlich-j?dische Familien im Dritten Reich
(Hamburg, 1988), 25.
11. Lily S. Krug, Harvard ms., 14.
12. Aralk in Margarete Limberg and Hubert R?bsaat (eds.), Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein.
J?discher Alltag in Selbstzeugnissen 1933-^1938 (Frankfurt/New York, 1990), 230.
13. Erna Segal, memoirs, LBI, 78-9. Some children were forced out of schools as often as three
times even before the war. See Aralk in Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 230.
14. Verena Hell wig, Harvard ms., 29-30.
15. Monika Richarz (ed.), J?disches Leben in Deutschland: Selbstzeugnisse zur Sozialgeschichte
1918-1945 (Stuttgart, 1982), 234.
16. Joseph Benjamin Levy (n. 3).
17. Steve J. Heims (ed.), Passages from Berlin, (South Berwick, Mass., 1987), 73, 76.
18. Hanna Bernheim, Harvard ms., 50-1. Eventually they decided to send their son to a Jewish
school in Berlin and their daughter to England.
19. Ernst Loewenberg in Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 217-8.
20. Paula Salomon-Lindberg quoted by Mary Felstiner, Charlotte Salomon (New York, 1994), 52.
21. Quoted in Joachim Meynert, “‘Das hat mir sehr weh getan!’ J?dische Jugend in
Ostwestfalen-Lippe,” in Hubert Frankem?lle (ed.), Opfer und T?ter (Bielefeld, 1990), 63. The
pastry that the Jewish child ate was a Mohrenkopf “a Moor’s head,” a racist term still used
in Germany today for a chocolate pastry.
22. Later, the “Aryan” girl changed her mind as her parents, too, became disillusioned with the
Nazis. She and the Jewish girl remained friends until the Jewish girl emigrated. Margot
Littauer, Harvard ms, 14-15.
23. Verena Hellwig, Harvard ms., 30.
24. Meynert, “Jugend,” 62..
25. Ernst Loewenberg in Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 217-8.
26. Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 208.
27. Toni Lessler, memoirs, LBI, 22.
28. Mally Dienemann, Harvard ms., 23a.
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_The School Lives of Jewish Children in the Third Reich 51
29. Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 210-11.
30. Werner A. Stein, chair of the Aufbau newspaper, in New York Times, 10 November 1992, B3
(a story on the Kaliski School in Berlin).
31. Clemens Vollnhals, “Judische Selbsthilfe bis 1938,” 342.
32. No. Jewish children No. Jewish children No. Jewish school
(ages 6-14) in Jewish schools
1933 60,000 15,000 not avail.
1935 44,000 20,000 130
1936 42,000 22,000 160
1937 not avail. 23,670 167
1939 not avail. 9,500 139
Solomon Colodner, Jewish Education, in Germany under the Nazis (New Yor
33. Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsh sein, 209.
34. Of the 16,799 children who attended public elementary schools in 1937, f
6,643 (39%) were enrolled in Jewish schools. Of the 11,473 pupils atte
elementary schools, however, 11,191 (98%) attended Jewish schools. In sum, ab
of all Jewish children remained in a German elementary school setting. At th
School level, about 46 per cent and at the Higher Schools, about 43% remaine
settings. Colodner, Jewish Education, 49.
35. Angress, Generation zwischen Furcht und Hoffnung, 19-20.
36. Lilli Sussmann, memoirs, LBI, 3.
37. Heinemann Stern in Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 221.
38. Toni Lessler, memoirs, LBI, letter from her sister in ms. folder.
39. Margot Littauer, Harvard ms., 28.
40. Joseph Walk, “J?dische Erziehung als geistiger Widerstand,” in Paucker (e
Nazi Germany (T?bingen, 1986), 239-47.
41. “No Ordinary Reunion: Berlin Stories from Special Alumni,” New York Time
1992, B3. The school was founded in 1932 for both Jewish and non-Jewish stu
forced to become a Jewish school by the Nazis. See also Michael Daxner,
J?dische Waldschule Kaliski in Berlin, 1932-1939,” in Paucker (ed.), The J
Germany, 249-57.
42. Heinemann Stern in Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsh sein, 226.p
43. Charlotte Stein Pick, memoirs, LBI, 28.
44. Toni Lessler, memoirs, LBI, 22-23.
45. Angress, Generation zwischen Furcht und Hoffnung, 21. See also Heinemann S
Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 220.
46. Arnold Paucker, “Anmerkungen zum Verhalten j?discher Jugendli
NS-Diktatur,” Ausstellungszeitung, Juden im Widerstand, Berlin, March-J
Tagesspiegel (Berlin), 15-16 November 1994.
47. Deborah Dwork, Children with a Star (New Haven, 1991), 23.
48. Hans Winterfeldt in Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch sein, 215-6.
49. Alison Owings, Frauen (New Brunswick, N.J., 1993), 450, 452.
50. Bundesarchiv Potsdam. 49.01 Reichsministerium f?r Wissenschaft, E
Volksbildung; 5595 Yawne Schule, K?ln. Founded in 1925 as a Realprogy
Lyzeum for boys and girls, respectively. In 1937, they asked to make English rat
the second foreign language since most of the children would try to emigrate
other English-speaking lands.
51. Vollnhals, “J?dische Selbsthilfe bis 1938,” 330.
52. Heinemann Stern in Limberg, Sie durften nicht mehr Deutsch se
also Joseph Benjamin Levy for a discussion of the rapidly burgeoning Jewish
Frankfurt/Main. (n. 3).
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52 Marion Kaplan_
53. Bundesarchiv Potsdam. 49.01 Reichsministerium f?r Wissenschaft, Erziehung, und
Volksbildung; 5368 Private Waldschule Kaliski. Letter exchange from August 1937 when the
school was requested to reduce its numbers from 351 to 100 (by the Baupolizei, ostensibly the
result of neighbors’ complaints.) The director said the school could not exist with so few and
that there was no place to send the Jewish children since all the other Jewish private schools
were overcrowded. The Reichs- und Preussischer Minister f?r Wissenschaft, Erziehung, und
Volksbildung (Berlin) decided that this situation had to be adjudicated according to Nazi
school politics: that is, Jews had to go to school but should be kept separate from Aryans.
Thus, the school would be reduced to 300 by natural attrition but not to 100 – despite the
complaints of the neighbors in Dahlem of the existence of this “Judenschule.”
54. Ruth Kl?ger, weiter leben (G?ttingen, 1992), 13-4.
55. Herbert Strauss, “Jewish Emigration (I),” Leo Baeck Institute Year Book (1980), 318.
56. J?dische Wohlfahrtspflege und Sozialpolitik, vol. 7 (1937), 163.
57. In June 1933 there were 106,966 people under 20 in Germany. In May 1939, there were 29,254
people under the age of 20. Benz, Juden in Deutschland, table, 734. In July 1941, there were
20,669 children up to the age of 18. Richarz, J?disches Leben, table, 61. I have made my
estimate from these charts.
Queens College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York
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HIS 2040 Jewish Culture and Civilization
Fall 2020
Instructions for end-of-term paper
•
Must be handed in as a PDF
1. What is this article about? Briefly summarize its contents and conclusions.
(Be careful not to rely on the abstract for the article (if there is one) when
you do this.)
2. Note and explain two things that were new to you (new information or new
ideas, perhaps a particular term that the author did not explain, or the name
of a key figure). (Was the topic itself new to you?) Why do you think these
things are important to know about?
Look up these new terms/ideas, define them, and cite the sources where
you found the information (as an internal text citation and also in your
bibliography).
3. On your own, find another article on a similar topic, in an academic
journal! Looking through this article’s bibliography might help you find one.
Summarize this other article, and explain how it relates to (complements,
supplements, and/or possibly contradicts) the article assigned.
4. Include properly formatted bibliographic citationsâ€â€there will be several
of them:
• The article itself
• The sources you used to answer question 2
• The article you found to answer question 3
•
Try your best to format your in-text citations or your footnotes, and your
bibliography in either
Chicago notes-and-bibliography style
https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide1.html
or in
Chicago author-date style
https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide2.html
(if you are comfortable with another citation style and can do it correctly, you
may use that.)
Total length of assignment should be between 1250-2000 words. 12-point font,
double-spaced.
Purchase answer to see full
attachment
