Prince Georges Community College Stages of Memory Discussion

  

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Class – This is one assignment:

A. Choose two (2) mnemonic aids to share 2. Summarize and/or discuss the study of Memory.

(

Do the work below to ensure good and correct DB answers.)

–We begin our look at memory with the dissection of a sheep’s brain which is very similar to the human brain. Go through the activity at:

http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/braindissection/index.html

–Next we will explore some other concepts related to the constructive nature of memory at:

http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/messingwithyourmind/index.html

B. Play some memory games at:

http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/

C. Now that you have learned something about memory, we will apply that knowledge to studying. You are asked to create two (2) mnemonic aids/devices to help you learn about and understand this chapter on

memory

. One must deal with the concept of working memory. The other can deal with any other concept related to memory. A website that can help you is:

http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch06_memory/memory_improvement.html

Class – This is one assignment:
A. Choose two (2) mnemonic aids to share 2. Summarize and/or discuss the study of
Memory. (Do the work below to ensure good and correct DB answers.)
–We begin our look at memory with the dissection of a sheep’s brain which is very similar to the
human brain. Go through the activity
at: http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/braindissection/index.html
–Next we will explore some other concepts related to the constructive nature of memory
at: http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/messingwithyourmind/index.html
B. Play some memory games at: http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/
C. Now that you have learned something about memory, we will apply that knowledge to
studying. You are asked to create two (2) mnemonic aids/devices to help you learn about and
understand this chapter on memory. One must deal with the concept of working memory. The
other can deal with any other concept related to memory. A website that can help you
is: http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch06_memory/memory_improvement.html
Chapter 6
MEMORY
PSYCHOLOGY
DEBORAH M. LICHT MISTY G. HULL COCO BALLANTYNE
Meet The Conductor
• In 1985, conductor Clive
Wearing (pictured here with
his wife Deborah) developed
a brain infection—viral
encephalitis—that nearly
took his life.
• Clive recovered physically,
but his memory was never
the same.
An Introduction to Memory (part 1)
• Encephalitis
– The red area in this
computerized axial
tomography (CAT or CT)
scan reveals inflammation in
the temporal lobe.
– The cause of this swelling is
herpes simplex virus, the
same virus responsible for
Clive’s illness.
An Introduction to Memory (part 2)
• Memory
– Refers to information the brain receives, stores, and
may retrieve for later use
– Not completely understood but a basic agreement on
general processes involved
An Introduction to Memory (part 3)
• MEMORY: ENCODING, STORAGE, AND
RETRIEVAL
– Encoding
• Includes the process through which information enters the
memory system
• Occurs when stimuli associated with events are converted to
neural activity that travels to the brain
• Involves two possible paths: memory system entry or loss of
stimuli
An Introduction to Memory (part 4)
• MEMORY: ENCODING, STORAGE, AND
RETRIEVAL
– Storage
• Includes process of preserving information for possible
recollection in the future
– Retrieval
• Refers to the process of accessing information encoded and
stored in memory
An Introduction to Memory (part 5)
• WORLD MEMORY ATHLETES
– Brains of memory champions are
not wired but trained to excel in
memory tasks.
– Heightened activity in specific
brain areas occurred in memory
competitors’ brains.
– Activity seemed to be associated
with use of an imagined order after
flipping through them just once.
An Introduction to Memory (part 6)
• LEVELS OF PROCESSING
– Memory can also be conceptualized from a
processing standpoint.
• Shallow
• Intermediate
• Deep
Stages of Memory (part 1)
• One of the most influential is the informationprocessing model, which suggests that memory
operates in a series of stages. This model, first
developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, suggests that
these stages represent a flow of information.
Stages of Memory (part 2)
• SENSORY MEMORY
– Sensory memory can hold vast amounts of sensory
stimuli for a sliver of time.
– Short-term memory can temporarily maintain and
process limited information for longer periods (about
30 seconds, if there are no distractions).
– Long-term memory has essentially unlimited
capacity and can hold onto information indefinitely.
Stages of Memory (part 3)
• Eidetic imagery
– Comes fairly close to
photographic memory
– Involves young children
who have the ability to
“see” image or object for
as long as several minutes
after It has been removed
from sight
• Echoic imagery
– Captures very subtle
changes in sound
– Lasts from about 1 to 10
seconds
Stages of Memory (part 4)
• How long does iconic memory last?
Stages of Memory (part 5)
• SHORT-TERM MEMORY
– Duration
– Maintenance rehearsal
– Chunking
Stages of Memory (part 6)
• SHORT-TERM MEMORY
– Chunking
• Grouping numbers, letters, or other items into meaningful
subsets as strategy for increasing the quantity of information
that can be maintained in short-term memory
Stages of Memory (part 7)
• WORKING MEMORY
– Active processing of memory in short-term memory
– Maintenance and manipulation of information in the
memory system
Stages of Memory (part 8)
SOCIAL MEDIA AND PSYCHOLOGY
• MULTITASKING AND MEMORY
– Media multitasking has been linked with
diminished academic performance.
• Texting and Facebook use while studying – lower GPA
• Frequent media multitasking – worse performance on math
and English achievement
– So… academic performance?
• Research findings suggest that digital distractions do have
the potential to impair memory and learning.
• Social media may impact working memory.
• What do you think? Agree? Disagree? Why?
Stages of Memory (part 9)
• COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY
– Phonological loop
• Responsible for working with verbal information for brief
periods of time
– Visuospatial sketchpad
• Where visual and spatial data are briefly stored and
manipulated
– Central executive
• Directs attention, makes plans, and coordinates activities
• Determines what information is used and what is ignored
– Episodic buffer
• Forms the bridge between memory and conscious
awareness
Stages of Memory (part 10)
Stages of Memory (part 11)
• Explicit memory
– Type of memory you are
aware of having and can
consciously express in
words or declare, including
memories of facts and
experiences.
• Semantic memory
– Memory of information
theoretically available to
anyone, which pertains to
general facts about the
world; a type of explicit
memory.
Stages of Memory (part 12)
• Episodic memory
– Record of memorable
experiences, or “episodes,”
including when and where
an experience occurred; a
type of explicit memory
• Flashbulb memory
– Detailed account of
circumstances surrounding
emotionally significant or
shocking, sometimes
historic, event
Stages of Memory (part 13)
• IMPLICIT MEMORY
– Memory of something one
knows or knows how to do
– May be automatic or
unconscious
• PROCEDURAL MEMORY
– Unconscious memory of how to
carry out variety of skills and
activities; type of implicit
memory
Improve Your Memory: Try This
• Take 15 seconds and try to memorize the seven
words below in the order they appear.
puppy stop sing sadness soccer kick panic
• Now close your eyes and see how many you
recall.
How did you do?
Stages of Memory (part 14)
• IMPROVING YOUR
MEMORY
– Mnemonics
– Mnemonics help us translate
information into a form that is
easier to remember.
• Method of loci
– Mnemonic device in which
person visualizes items to be
learned with landmarks in
some familiar place
Stages of Memory (part 15)
• IMPROVING YOUR MEMORY
–
–
–
–
–
–
Automatic and effortful processing
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Hierarchical structures
Massed practice
Distributed practice
How many of these strategies have you tried?
How many worked? Didn’t work?
Stages of Memory (part 16)
• Benefits of adequate sleep
– Readies brain for memory formation
– Increases potential for newly acquired memory retention
– Strengthens, conditions, and consolidates fear memories;
helps in distinguishing between threatening and nonthreatening
– Reduces emotional reactions to events
• Impact of sleep deprivation
– Associated with increased risk for heart disease, stroke,
and type 2 diabetes
– May interfere with learning
STUDY SMARTER
•
•
•
•
•
•
Start studying
Recall details (mnemonics)
Organize information (hierarchical structures)
Make connections (elaborate rehearsal)
Give yourself some time (distributed practice)
Get some rest!
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 1)
• WHAT CAN YOU RETRIEVE?
– Retrieval cues
• Stimuli that aid in retrieval of information that is difficult to
access
– Priming
• Stimulation of memories as result of retrieval cues in
environment
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 2)
• RECALL AND RECOGNITION
– Recall
• Retrieving information held in long-term memory without
explicit retrieval cues; more difficult than recognition
– Recognition
• Matching incoming data to information stored in long-term
memory; just have to identify information, rather than come
up with information
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 3)
• SERIAL POSITION
EFFECT
– Items at the beginning
and the end of a list
are more likely to be
recalled.
– Primacy effect
– Recency effect
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 4)
• Encoding specificity principle
– Godden and Baddeley asked participants to learn a list of words in
two contexts: underwater and on dry land.
• Context-dependent memories are easier to access when the
encoding and retrieval occur in similar contexts.
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 5)
• Mood and memory
– The deeper the
processing, the greater the
likelihood of retrieval.
– The origin of a memory
provides a host of retrieval
cues.
• Mood congruence
– Memory is facilitated when
physiological and
psychological conditions
are similar at time of
encoding and retrieval.
– Retrieval also easier if
content of memory
corresponds to present
emotional state
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 6)
• HOW EASILY WE REMEMBER: MEMORY
SAVINGS
– Ebbinghaus
• First to quantify effect of relearning
• Noted the reduced time taken in relearning
– Bowers
• People who have knowledge of language (non-explicit) from
early life often show a “memory savings” when trying to
relearn language as adults.
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 7)
• HOW EASILY WE FORGET: MEMORY SLIPS
EXPLAINED
– Ebbinghaus
• First to demonstrate how rapidly memories vanish
– Encoding failures
• Cause of forgetting dependent on stage of memory
processing at instance of memory failure
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 8)
• HOW EASILY WE FORGET
– Memory slips explained
• Storage failure and memory decay
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (retrieval failure)
• Highly superior autobiographical memory
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 9)
• Ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting
– Ebbinghaus discovered that most forgetting occurs within 1 hour of
learning and then levels off.
Retrieval and Forgetting (part 10)
Reliability of Memory (part 1)
• MISINFORMATION EFFECT
– Memories can be changed in response to new
information.
– Eyewitness accounts can be altered by variety of
factors that follow an event to be recalled.
Reliability of Memory (part 2)
• FALSE MEMORIES
– Would you believe that looking
at photoshopped pictures can
lead to the creation of false
memories?
– In one study, it was discovered
that participants could
“remember” hot air balloon
rides they never took after
looking at doctored photos of
themselves as children on
balloon rides.
CONTROVERSIES
• The debate over repressed childhood
memories
– The APA and other organizations have investigated
repressed memory and offered several conclusions:
• The repressed memory debate should not detract from child
sexual abuse issues.
• Most sexual abuse victims have at least some abuse
memory.
• Memories of past abuses can be forgotten and remembered
at a later date.
• People do create false memories of experiences they never
had.
• There is not a complete understanding of how accurate and
flawed memories are formed.
The Biology of Memory (part 1)
• Exploring the causes of memory failure in
cases of amnesia can aid in the
understanding of the biological basis of
memory.
– Amnesia can result from either physical or
psychological conditions.
– Two different types and degrees of amnesia
• Anterograde
• Retrograde
The Biology of Memory (part 2)
• RETROGRADE AND
ANTEROGRADE
AMNESIA
– Retro means “before,”
so retrograde amnesia
is the inability retrieve
memories for events
that occurred before
an amnesia-causing
injury. Antero means
“after,” so anterograde
amnesia is inability to
form memories for
events that occur after
an injury.
The Biology of
Memory (part 3)
The Biology of Memory (part 4)
• ROLE OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS
– Research findings
• The hippocampus is essential for creating new explicit but
not implicit memories.
• Explicit memories are processed and stored in other parts of
the brain, including the temporal lobes and areas of the
frontal cortex.
• The hippocampus plays central role in laying down new
memories but does not serve as ultimate destination.
The Biology of Memory (part 5)
• LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
– Refers to the increased efficiency of neural
communication over time, resulting in learning and
the formation of memories
– May be biological basis for many kinds of learning
– Demonstrated on Aplysia (sea slug)
– Appears to be related to Alzheimer’s disease
• Neurofibrillary tangles
• Amyloid plaques
The Biology of Memory (part 6)
• WHERE MEMORIES LIVE IN THE BRAIN—A
MICRO PERSPECTIVE
– Alzheimer’s disease
• Progressive, devastating brain illness that causes cognitive
decline, including memory, language, and thinking problems.
– Neurofibrillary tangles
– Amyloid plaques
NATURE AND NURTURE
• Why Alzheimer’s?
– Alzheimer’s disease can result from a nature and
nurture combination.
– Some forms of the disease are inherited. People who
have a first-degree relative (a parent, sibling, or child)
with Alzheimer’s have a higher risk for developing the
disease.
• APOEε4
– Environmental factors can also influence the
development and progression of the disease.
• Obesity, sedentary life style, standard American diet, air
pollution
The Biology of Memory (part 7)
• FACTS ABOUT MEMORY LOSS
– There is no definitive way to know whether you or a family
member will suffer from a neurocognitive disorder.
– Studies of both animals and people have linked physical
exercise to a variety of positive changes in the brain.
– Intellectually engaging activities such as reading books
and newspapers, writing, drawing, and solving crossword
puzzles have been associated with a lower risk of memory
loss.
– Being socially active and hooked into social networks may
reduce the risk of developing dementia.
The Biology of Memory (part 8)
• CHRONIC TRAUMATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY (CTE)
– CTE is a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused
by a single or repeated blow to the head. CTE affects
athletes of many types, combat war veterans, and many
others who experience head trauma.
– The symptoms, which may not appear for months or years
after the injury, include changes to memory, emotions,
thinking, and personality. It can also impair memory,
movement, and the ability to plan and carry out everyday
tasks.

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